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Wackernagel*, H. (2003). Multivariate geostatistics. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
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Vengosh, A., Spivack, A. J., Artzi, Y., & Ayalon, A. (1999). Geochemical and boron, strontium, and oxygen isotopic constraints on the origin of the salinity in groundwater from the Mediterranean coast of Israel. Water Resources Research, 35(6), 1877–1894.
Abstract: In order to identify the origin of the salinity and formation of saline plumes in the central part of the Mediterranean coastal aquifer of Israel, we determined the elemental and boron, strontium, and oxygen isotopic compositions of fresh and brackish groundwater (C1 up to 1500 mg/L). We distinguish between two key anthropogenic sources: (1) sewage effluents used for irrigation with high Na/C1, SO4/C1, and B/C1 ratios and low Br/C1 ratios relative to seawater ratios, low ;5•B values (0-10%o) and high ;5•80 values (>-4%0); and (2) imported water from the Sea of Galilee that is artificially
recharged tothe aquifer with high Br/C1 (3 x 10 -3) and ;5•80 values (-1%o) and a low 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.70753. The brackish groundwater from the saline plumes have relatively low Na/C1 ratios (0.5-0.8) and high Ca/Mg, Mg/C1, and Ca/(SO 4 q- HCO3) (> l) ratios relative to seawater ratios; marine SO4/C1 and Br/C1 ratios;5•B values of 24.8-49.9%0; 18 87 86 ;50 of -2.95%0 to -4.73%0; and Sr/ Sr ratios of 0.708275-0.708532. The composition of most of the investigated groundwater from the saline plumes differs from those of the 87 86 anthropogenic sources, imported water, fresh uncontaminated groundwater (Sr/ Sr of 0.70866, ;5•B of 20-30%o), and saline water from the adjacent Eocene aquitard. Only in ß 18 areas of artificial recharge does local groundwater have high Br/C1 and ;50 values that are typical to the Sea of Galilee. The linear relationships between chloride and most of the ions, including Band Sr, the relatively high ;5•B (>30%0) and low ;5•80 (<-4%0) values, and the chemical signature of the saline plumes (e.g., marine Br/C1 and SO4/C1 ratios), suggest that (1) mixing processes control the chemical composition of the brackish water within the aquifer, and (2) the saline postulated end-member has a chemical composition that resembles modified seawater with a marine and higher ;5•B values, and a 87Sr/86Sr ratio of <0.7083. We propose that most of the salinization phenomena and the formation of saline plumes in the inner parts of the coastal aquifer are derived from upconing of underlying natural saline water bodies and enhanced by overexploitation and draw-down of the overlying fresh groundwater.
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Vengosh, A., & Rosenthal, E. (1994). Saline groundwater in Israel: its bearing on the water crisis in the country. Journal of Hydrology, 156(1), 389–430.
Abstract: One of the major causes for the deterioration of water quality bearing heavily on the water crisis in Israel is the ongoing contamination of its water resources by saline water bodies. The present paper reviews the geochemical processes forming saline water, lists and explains certain chemical and isotopic parameters which enable understanding these processes and describes the saline groundwater bodies and various salinization phenomena occurring in the country’s various aquifers. Deterioration of groundwater in Israel is caused by numerous natural processes such as encroachment of sea water, migration of connate, highly pressurized brines penetrating into fresh groundwater, by subsurface dissolution of soluble salts originating in surrounding country rocks and by water-rock interaction. In addition to sea water, two saline water bodies were identified as the main factors causing salinization of fresh groundwater: (a) Ca-chloride brines encountered in the Jordan-Dead Sea Rift Valley, in various parts of the Negev and of the Coastal Plain, and (b) Na-chloride saline water identified in the subsurface of the Negev and in the southern part of the Coastal Plain. Intensive exploitation of groundwater in Israel has disturbed the natural equilibrium which prevailed between fresh and saline water. The newly established groundwater flow regimes have facilitated the migration of saline water bodies, their participation in the active hydrological cycle and the progressive contamination of fresh groundwater. These processes which were not anticipated by planners and water resources managers emphasize that large-scale groundwater exploitation was undertaken without giving sufficient consideration to the occurrence and subsurface migration of saline water and brines.
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Varouchakis, E. A., Theodoridou, P. G., & Karatzas, G. P. (2020). Decision-making tool for groundwater level spatial distribution and risk assessment using geostatistics in R. J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste, 24 (1), 04019031.
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Tziritis, E., Aschonitis, V., Balacco, G., Daras, P., Doulgeris, C., Fidelibus, M. D., et al. (2020). MEDSAL Project-Salinization of critical groundwater reserves in coastal Mediterranean areas: Identification, risk assessment and sustainable management with the use of integrated modelling and smart ICT tools. Copernicus Meetings.
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